For Turkish and Islamic civilization, it can also be referred to as the civilization of mosque that has reached an extraordinary level of architectural and artistic beauty. With the conquests of Islam, mosques were among the primary structures built in the new territories and living spaces reached by Muslim societies. Especially during these times, mosques not only served as places of worship but also stood as political symbols and complex social structures due to being built as part of larger architectural complexes known as külliye. In Turkish-Islamic culture, mosques were designed not only to serve as places of worship but also to fulfill various other functions through the structures built within and adjacent to them, forming important centers and symbols of the city. Mosques were integrated into a holistic concept with other social structures such as madrasas, soup kitchens, and public baths. As a result, mosques in Islamic culture have always been valuable and multifunctional structures designed with careful consideration of their utility, aesthetics, and the highest levels of architectural and artistic excellence. This vision and attention to detail have led to the preservation of numerous mosques that stand as masterpieces, encompassing vast regions of the Islamic world including Andalusia, Syria, the Holy Land, South Africa, the Iran region, and Anatolia.
Similarly, in the history of Christian civilization, churches built with the same approach stand out. States and communities adhering to the Christian faith also created religious, political, and social structures by constructing grand churches in central locations within their cities. Throughout the Middle Ages, victorious parties in battles between Islamic and Western states often converted mosques to churches and vice versa. This transformation was frequently used by the victorious side as a means of asserting political power and superiority. This conversion of purpose, from mosque to church or vice versa, was particularly evident during periods of warfare and conquest, especially during events such as the Crusades. Numerous examples can be found where mosques were destroyed or converted into churches during this period, especially in Anatolia and the Syrian region. Similarly, Turkish and Islamic states, upon conquering new territories, converted numerous churches into mosques and repurposed them to serve their communities. This transformation often occurred in the major cities of newly acquired regions.
A pivotal transformation in history that impacted both Muslims and all of humanity occurred in 1453, with the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople by the Muslim Turks. The Ottoman sultan Mehmed II’s victory over the longstanding Byzantine Empire shifted the global political and religious balances. The Muslim Turkish state had captured one of the world’s most significant cities, Istanbul, overthrowing the ancient Eastern Roman Empire and establishing its own dominion. This monumental transformation reshaped all aspects of human existence—political, social, and religious—ushering in a new era of dominance and civilization. As a consequence of this historic shift, Mehmed II, known as Mehmed the Conqueror, converted Hagia Sophia, the grandest and largest church in the city, into a mosque and established its endowment (waqf). Hagia Sophia, once a symbol of Byzantine political and religious might, became a symbol of Muslim Turkish power and presence. The structure was renamed Ayasofya-i Kebir Mosque and acquired new significance in the Islamic world.
The original Hagia Sophia was first built in the 4th century as a wooden-roofed basilica. While credited to Emperor Constantine I, its completion fell to his son Constantius II, and it was inaugurated on February 15, 360. However, the ancient Hagia Sophia underwent various destructions, fires, and earthquakes until the Ottoman conquest, leaving it in disrepair. It was repeatedly restored, modified, and expanded during the Byzantine era, with different parts of the structure being built or rebuilt by various Byzantine emperors. The construction of Hagia Sophia involved importing marbles and special stones, often from distant regions such as Syria. Prominent architects and scholars of the time contributed to its construction and restoration. By the time of its conversion into a mosque, Hagia Sophia had survived multiple alterations and periods of disrepair. Various accounts from the 15th century, including Tursun Beg’s chronicle of the conquest of Constantinople, describe its poor condition. Tursun Beg records that when Mehmed II visited Hagia Sophia after the conquest, he ascended to the dome to inspect its condition and was astonished by the state of disrepair. During the conquest, Mehmed II ordered his soldiers to prevent any plunder or destruction of the building. Subsequently, he performed his first prayer in Hagia Sophia and established a madrasa nearby. Throughout history, other Ottoman sultans, such as Bayezid II and Selim II, made further additions and repairs, and Mimar Sinan’s interventions helped prevent its collapse. The building was fortified with additional supports and minarets to ensure its structural integrity.
Hagia Sophia, having a significant place in both the Orthodox Christian and Ottoman Muslim worlds, became a museum in the aftermath of the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1934. Its function was changed from a mosque to a museum, disregarding its original endowment and purpose. Over the course of nearly 500 years, Hagia Sophia had served as a mosque and been an essential element of Istanbul’s character, established by Mehmed the Conqueror, yet its significance was overridden and its status as a museum became dominant. Its sacred relics, carpets, and inscriptions were removed and the building’s historical Islamic character was gradually diminished.
Hagia Sophia held immense value not only for Turkish Muslims but also for Muslim states and communities worldwide. It carried spiritual significance and stood as a symbol of the conquest of Istanbul, embodying the realization of a great aspiration. Its transformation into a museum in 1934, its subsequent commercialization through admission fees, and international involvement in its management raised concerns among Muslims. After a long and awaited period, in a move that aimed to restore its spiritual essence and original identity, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the 12th President of the Republic of Turkey, reconverted Hagia Sophia into a mosque. Hagia Sophia was once again freed from external influences and resumed its role as a sacred place where Allah’s name resonates and Muslim foreheads bow in prayer.
