The social and economic lives of states and societies are elements that possess continuity and carrier-like features, just like human character. Especially when Turkish history is considered as a whole, it is clear that this statement is highly valid. Generally, the geography in which societies live, their climate, and their relationships with neighboring states have determined their character structures.
When considering the social life of Turkish communities, it can be observed that the historical experiences of Turkish tribes from Central Asia to Anatolia, spanning thousands of years, have shown significant continuity and persistence despite minor changes under various conditions. Indeed, while cities were established and social and economic lives emerged as a result of urban life’s influence and necessity, Turkish communities mostly continued their social and economic traditions from thousands of years ago.
In this article, we will focus on the social and economic life of the Hun and Göktürk peoples, who lived in close proximity to each other and within a broad historical continuity from Central Asia to Anatolia. Particularly, we will emphasize the traditions that have shown continuity in both geographical and human populations for these two states.
Throughout history, states and societies have been able to build lives within the opportunities they found in their geographical regions and the resources available to them. Therefore, factors such as land productivity, climate diversity, and water resources have been decisive in the historical experiences, social, and economic lives of states and societies.
In this context, when the geographical structure of the Central Asian Turkic lands is examined, a dominant steppe culture is observed. Especially the harshness of the steppe climate has deeply affected the economic and social lives of the Hun and Göktürk societies. The Hun and Göktürk states and their populations established settlements in areas with abundant water sources like rivers and lakes, as well as fertile pastures for their animals, in order to minimize the drawbacks of the steppe climate and find suitable living spaces.
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
Although the Hun communities lived in steppe areas, they had discovered agricultural areas within the limited regions of the steppe. According to Chinese sources, which provide detailed information about the Huns, they cultivated crops such as millet and wheat. They also had a unique “Hun Bean” that was associated with them. Archaeological excavations conducted in the Altai and Sayan mountains indicate that agriculture had been practiced in these lands for at least three thousand years. Evidence of irrigation canals discovered in the Altai region especially demonstrates how the Huns maximized the use of agriculturally suitable areas in steppe conditions. Similarly, archaeological findings such as plows, sickles, and millstones necessary for agriculture indicate the level of agricultural development during this period.
The most important agricultural products were cereals, primarily wheat and barley. In addition to cereals, fruits and vegetables were produced and consumed to the extent allowed by the geography and climate. Although fruits and vegetables did not have the same variety as cereals, vegetables such as squash, garlic, and onions were known.
Fruits such as melons and watermelons from gardens, as well as tree fruits like plums, apples, quinces, and mulberries, were also present. Especially in the region of Inner Asia, vineyards covered vast areas. Therefore, grapes were an important fruit. From this fruit, syrup, vinegar, and wine were made.
The Hun and Göktürk states, in addition to their own agricultural production, also benefited from agricultural products through trade and as war spoils from different states and communities. Especially through trade with the Chinese and by integrating people from different nations into agriculturally suitable areas, they utilized the labor force for agricultural production.
Animal husbandry and animals played a significant role in the steppe societies. Apart from meeting their nutritional needs, animals were used for transportation and in wars, and their strength was also utilized in agricultural production, leading to significant advancements in animal husbandry.
The climate zone where Turkish communities lived was highly suitable for animal husbandry. Horses were particularly essential for warfare. Additionally, due to the nomadic nature of steppe life resulting from climatic conditions and political issues, nomadic communities made the most of the fast mobility provided by animals. Horses were so intertwined with Turkic communities that they became an integral part of their character.
The culture of Central Asian societies and their connection with horses must be highlighted. Horses were deeply associated with the Turkish character. They were extensively utilized in warfare. Especially due to the characteristics of the steppe culture, horses displayed various breeds and characteristics, resulting in significant diversity. The horses used by the Central Asian Turkic states were described as small-bodied, with long, slender legs, proud looks, and tough hooves. These breeds of horses were the most suitable tools for the steppe.
According to historical records, the most common animals were horses, cattle, and sheep. Occasionally, there were also references to camels, mules, and donkeys. In this period, the meat of animals was consumed as food, their milk was consumed, and kumis (fermented mare’s milk) was made. Their skins were used in clothing. With all these qualities, animals and animal husbandry were highly valuable for steppe societies. Equestrian and archery training was conducted through these animals.
Industry
During the Hun and Göktürk periods, even though the opportunities provided by the steppe were limited, they established a certain level of industry with unique resources. Turkish and Iranian cultures were known for their art of carpet weaving, kilims (woven rugs), and living in tents, thus emphasizing the importance of sheep farming and wool production during this period.
Blacksmithing was essential for steppe tribes. Particularly, ironwork skills of Central Asian steppe tribes were renowned in various regions. Especially, the production of steel and metals required for horses and animal husbandry was conducted. Furthermore, the production of tools needed for agricultural production, such as sickles and plows, was also part of their industrial production.
The Hun and Göktürk states had a more advanced armament industry compared to their neighbors. They produced excellent swords, shields, spears, lances, and armor. Skilled carpenters were particularly found among the Huns, crafting tables, chairs, seats, and cabinets.
Trade and Taxes
Although steppe tribes conducted their own production to some extent based on the possibilities of their settlement areas, they met many of their needs through commercial relations with neighboring tribes. They also shared their products through trade with neighboring states and communities. Periodically, trade agreements were signed, especially with China.
Turkic communities mainly sold livestock, particularly horses, as well as preserved meat, leather, fur, and animal products to neighboring nations. In return, they acquired goods like grains and silk fabrics, especially from China.
During their respective periods, the Huns and Göktürks established a taxation system. They collected various taxes from defeated states and also from their own subjects. Tax officials were appointed to collect taxes, and these officials collected taxes in the form of gold or coins. Taxes were also collected in the form of horses and sheep from the population.
Urbanism Even though ancient Turkic communities, especially the Huns and Göktürks, led a nomadic life, they mostly also led a seasonal life, both in summer and winter. While summer months were spent in pastures, they built houses to spend the winter. They also built various altars for sacrificial offerings due to religious traditions.
The ancient Turks referred to cities as “balık/balığ.” In fact, Kaşgarlı Mahmud, the author of “Divân-u Lugat-ı Türk,” indicates that this name means “fortress.” According to the same author, the term “city” was also used.
Rulers, especially one in the highlands and others in valleys and along riverbanks, had houses or yurt tents. Those in the highlands had large, massive tents, while those in other centers had houses. It is known that the Hun ruler Mo-tu had a summer city on the Ongin River.
Cities were mostly made of mud-brick, which was composed of clay and earth. Chinese sources also report that Hun houses were made of beaten earth. Although rare, it is also known that the Huns built walled cities. In particular, in 26 BC, Chih-ch Şanyü built a walled city.
Culture and Art The concept of culture and art, shaped by the character structure of societies, their geographical and climatic features, and their cultural and human relations with neighboring states, is evident in the Hun and Göktürk cultures and art forms, primarily shaped by their own lifestyles and relations with various communities.
The understanding of culture and art during the Hun and Göktürk periods is exemplified by the archaeological excavations and findings we have obtained. The influence of steppe culture is dominant in the art, as seen from the decorations on everyday objects and their artistic perspectives. Belt buckles, dagger hilts, horse harnesses, elaborately decorated leathers, and other products are expressions of the steppe Turkish art style.
The significance they attached to their deceased and cultural forms such as the “Ancestor Cult” shaped the “balbal,” which are tombstones, and various sculptures, providing important evidence of the art of steppe Turkic communities.
The development of the weaving industry and the ornate decorations on the tents they lived in emphasize the integration of art into the daily lives of Turkic communities. Art was an integral part of their lives.
Clothing and Attire Given the importance and presence of tanning in the Hun and Göktürk periods, clothing in steppe communities largely consisted of garments made from wool and hides obtained from animals. Layered shirts, socks, boots, and headgear were important clothing items. The challenges brought by the harshness of steppe life and climatic conditions played a determining role in clothing and attire. The clothing of the Hun and Göktürk communities was shaped accordingly.
Religious Beliefs Regarding pre-Islamic Turkic beliefs, especially during the Hun and Göktürk periods, it is not possible to speak of a specific uniqueness. The diversity of Turkic beliefs resulted from the influence of steppe life, trade relations with neighboring states, and cultural exchanges. A rich religious perception and way of life influenced by many different beliefs can be observed.
The highest deity was known as “Tengri.” Apart from Tengri, there were intermediary deities and beliefs in good and evil spirits. In addition to these, mythological elements that found their place in the oral traditions and imaginations of steppe societies played a decisive role in shaping these beliefs. Similar to Semitic religions, the belief in the afterlife, including concepts of heaven and hell, existed in Hun and Göktürk folk beliefs.
State, Language, and Social Life When examining the social life of the Hun and Göktürk communities, it is evident that the structure of society, including the state and state organization, was shaped within the framework of the characteristics of the steppe. The dominance of steppe culture and the understanding of state organization were evident in all aspects of daily life, including the state structure.
In social life, there was an organization based on clans. This form of organization appeared in both periods. Each clan had a certain power and clan leader, who were subservient to the khan. The existence of a dynasty was also known, and the dominance of the dynasty was felt in all areas.
Family life held a significant place. Importance was attached to the family, and establishing strong family relationships was valued. Monogamy was practiced in marriage. However, rulers could have multiple spouses for social and political reasons.
Food and drink held a considerable place in the harsh steppe climate. Especially for the Huns and Göktürks, who engaged in partially in agriculture and mainly in animal husbandry, they relied on cereals obtained from farming and meat and dairy products obtained from animals for their sustenance.
Regarding language, there were words with continuity in terms of speech during the Hun and Göktürk periods. However, there is no written material available from the Hun period. Nevertheless, we have a rich source of language in the Göktürk period, especially with the Orkhon Inscriptions. The Orkhon/Göktürk alphabet and the formal characteristics of inscriptions indicate a developed language and mode of expression.
In general, the purpose of our article, in which we have conveyed the social and economic life of the Hun and Göktürk periods, is to provide readers with a concise historical knowledge about the periods and lifestyles of these states.
Pre-Islamic Turkish history, especially the Hun and Göktürk periods, exhibit similarities in social and economic aspects due to factors such as their dominance over similar geographical regions, their chronological proximity, and being established by the same ethnic groups. Although different social and economic conditions emerged over time due to political relationships and climatic features, they mostly preserved their essential characteristics. In conclusion, as evidence of the continuity and tradition of Turkish history, the social and economic existence of the Huns and Göktürks serves as a significant example.
