Before discussing the phenomenon of Turkish Islam, the first thing we need to emphasize is that this concept is a sociological term. It should never be perceived as a different form of Islam. Because fundamentally, Islam/Muslimhood is to express a fixed belief in every aspect. The essential aspects of this belief, namely the Quranic word, are fixed and clear. The term “Turkish Islam” is a sociological description, just like the terms “Arab Islam” or “Islamic identity” mentioned above. This description is used to define the belief forms that individuals and societies create under certain conditions such as their psychology, character, and social, economic, and political factors.
Throughout their history, the Turks, due to their geographical location and their affiliation with a semi-nomadic sociological structure, have encountered and experienced many different cultures, beliefs, and values through relationships and interactions with neighboring tribes. Especially due to the nomadic lifestyle, they encountered different geographies, met different human communities, and engaged in cultural exchange with these communities.
Until the acceptance of Islam by the Turks, when the historical reality for the Turkish nation is considered, it is not possible to talk about a universally accepted, fixed, and recognized religious belief. Because the belief history of the Turks has varied over time and space, due to conditions, political events, and commercial relationships. In addition, it is especially intricate.
Especially in the pre-Islamic period, due to their nomadic society, they adopted totemism, various nature cults (ancestors, earth and sky, natural events, etc.), and shamanistic rituals. Although the belief state of the Turks has been defined as “shamanism” in the history literature, this is an incorrect definition. Shamanism is not a religion; it is a concept that only expresses a ritual and belief form. Especially the rituals of the shamanic leaders, known as “kam,” were accepted by the Turks as a way to live and express their beliefs.
In the pre-Islamic period, due to the cosmopolitan structure of the geography they lived in, their encounters with missionary activities in the Middle East and Central Asia, as well as political and economic reasons, the Turks were influenced by various beliefs, including Manichaeism, Buddhism, and even Christian and Jewish (Karaites) beliefs. However, it is also seen that Turks who embraced these new and different beliefs continued to practice their old beliefs and traditions.
The Turks were tolerant of the new beliefs and rituals they encountered, and they adopted beliefs that were in line with their own dynamics and social values, incorporating their previous beliefs and traditions into these new forms. In other words, the Turks’ character in the face of beliefs is like a universal blood type. They were influenced by many beliefs, and they continued their old beliefs and traditions by adapting them to new forms. Therefore, a definitive naming or specific religious identity for pre-Islamic Turkish religious history and beliefs is not possible.
With the revelation of the Quranic word, especially starting with the Umayyad period, through the conquests in the Middle East and Central Asia, the Turks gradually began to embrace Islam and the Islamic religious tradition. However, it should be noted that the Islamization of the Turks was not easy, quick, or immediate. The Islamization of the Turks took place over a long period of time, after many positive and negative realities influenced by various political, economic, and societal factors. The Islamization of the Turks continued until almost the 18th century. The Turks’ introduction to Islam was the result of a complex process that included military struggles due to the violent nature of the Arab conquests. The Turks embraced Islam at various times, either individually or collectively, depending on the circumstances.
As we mentioned in our discussions about the religious character of the Turks, even when they encountered new religions and beliefs, we noted that the Turks continued their old beliefs in some form, even if they did not fully adopt the new ones. Similarly, when Turks began to embrace Islam, they also reconstructed their old religious traditions and rituals in Islamic forms. Even today, it can be seen that many pre-Islamic religious elements, rituals, and traditions continue to exist within the religious practices and knowledge of Muslim Turkish society.
Another important point that needs to be addressed in Turkish religious history is that the Turks encountered Islam in the Iranian region. The Iranian region has been a host to ancient civilizations and beliefs throughout history, giving rise to various cosmopolitan beliefs. Therefore, the influence of Iran on Turkish-Islamic beliefs due to the Turks’ encounter with Islam in this region is significant. Especially religious concepts among Muslims such as prayer (namaz), fasting (oruç), etc., which are still prevalent among Turkish Muslims, are often in Persian rather than Arabic.
Within the Turkish religious tradition, the religious leaders known as “kam” and their rituals, due to their secluded and ascetic lifestyles, were easily incorporated into the “tasavvufi” (Sufi) sects that continued a similar way of life during the Islamic period. The Sufi tradition found a significant audience among the Turks. The lifestyle of “kam” in the pre-Islamic period continued in the Islamic period as well under names like “evliya” (saints), “abdal,” “dervish,” and “kalender.”
Starting from the 9th century, as the Turks began to embrace Islam, after their arrival in Anatolia, due to their semi-nomadic lifestyle that lasted for many years, they followed a belief system that was entirely based on an oral culture, not a written one. The non-orthodox and entirely oral nature of the Turks’ beliefs is evident. The non-orthodox (heterodox) beliefs of the Turks are a mixture of oral and varied (heterodox) elements. In fact, the difference in beliefs between settled Turkish communities and semi-nomadic Turkish communities has created a deep gap in historical experience. This difference still has an impact today. Especially among semi-nomadic Turkish communities, the commitment to old pre-Islamic religious traditions and rituals continued in an Islamic form. However, over time, settled Turks adopted a more orthodox (book-based) approach, drawing more from the Quran and Sunnah, and developed a different identity through madrasah schools. The sociological difference created by these two distinctions also led these two groups to have different religious discourses towards each other in social life. This situation has also led to many military and political struggles (Babailers, Sheikh Bedreddin, etc.).
As we mentioned, the beliefs of the Turks change over time and due to social, political, and economic reasons, and vary. In fact, in Turkish history, it can be observed that the Turks sometimes changed their religion due to political reasons or joined certain denominations of religions. For example, during the “Great Seljuks” period, in response to the spread of “Shiism,” the “Sunnism” was adopted as a political maneuver to gain advantage. Against the Shiite tradition, the “Nizamiye Madrasas” were established. The influence of the Abbasid Caliphate was recognized to establish political, social, and economic relations.
Similarly, in the Ottoman period, against the policies of Shah Ismail and the Safavids, Sunni Islam was revived and used as a counter-policy by the Ottoman authorities. States have engaged in deep military and social propaganda activities through religious denominations and sects. In the later periods, especially towards the end of the Ottoman rule, especially during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, efforts were made to exploit the possibilities of their caliphate position and use it as a political tool.
With the abolition of the caliphate in November 1924, the Ottoman Empire, which had already begun to decline, entered a new stage in Turkish religious history through the efforts and struggles of the members of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) who founded the Republic of Turkey. The establishment of the Republic of Turkey, based on its fundamental philosophy and the reforms carried out over time, marked a different phase in Turkish religious history, with the abolition of the caliphate, the Tevhidi Tedrisat Law (Unification of Education Law), and the establishment of the Directorate of Religious Affairs.
The basic philosophy of the new Republic, along with the subsequent reforms, gradually evolved the form of religion for the Turkish nation into a modern Western-centric, secular, and laic line. Especially with the adoption of a French-style secularism, there was a significant turning point and rupture in Turkish religious history. The secular and secularist system established by the founding cadres of the Republic eventually gave rise to various religious problems.
Especially issues such as the adoption of Turkish for the call to prayer (ezan), and later the emergence of the headscarf (turban) issue, Alevism, and so on, brought tensions between secular and laicist factions and conservative and devout groups. During this period, the essence, spirit, and way of life of the Turkish society’s understanding of religion changed. In the following period, the public opinion of the Republic of Turkey entered the 21st century with occasional rising tensions and conflicts in the field of religion. Especially with the consequences of the events like the February 28th process (28 Şubat), and the prior societal incidents like the Madımak massacre, Kahramanmaraş incidents, etc., tensions and conflicts have reached their peak.
