The term “Colonizing Turkish Dervishes” is an expression introduced to the history and sociology literature through the renowned work “Colonizing Turkish Dervishes and Sufi Lodges” by the late historian Ömer Lütfi Barkan. A specialist in institutions, civilization, and Ottoman economy, the late scholar opened a new perspective with this work, contributing an important viewpoint to social history studies centered around society, individuals, religion, and culture. The concept of Colonizing Dervishes specifically defines a significant period in Turkish-Islamic history in Anatolia and the Balkans, elaborating and illustrating the processes of Turkification and Islamization that occurred during this era.
Anatolian Turkish history, which began with the Seljuk Turks’ Turkmen raids and migration activities, took a significant turn with events such as the Battle of Manzikert (Malazgirt) and later the Battle of Myriokephalon. Particularly during this period, Turkmen groups migrating from the Near East, specifically the Iranian region, to Anatolia began to settle. While the majority of these groups were semi-nomadic, a minority consisted of settled urban Turkmen communities from Iran. Over time, supported by political, economic, and societal conditions, the Turkmen migrations into Anatolia continued steadily and systematically, bolstered by the state policies of contemporary Turkic Beyliks, particularly the Seljuks. While these semi-nomadic Turkmen groups occasionally encountered challenges with the state and bureaucracy due to varying circumstances, this aspect is of a secondary nature.
Before the Turkmen migrations to Anatolia, the sociological, religious, political, and cultural memory of Anatolia consisted mainly of Armenians in Eastern Anatolia and Kurds dwelling in mountainous areas, as well as Byzantine Greek Christians, primarily in Central Anatolia and the Aegean. Until that time, Anatolia had been a realm for many states since ancient times, witnessing numerous wars in the region due to its cosmopolitan nature and ethnic diversity. The various civilizations that came before, coupled with warfare and ethnic diversity, had left Anatolia in a state of disrepair and ruin. In fact, the initial Turkic incursions described this region with names implying ruins, desolation, and destruction, rather than fertile lands.
The Turkmen migrations that commenced in Anatolia, referred to as “settled” or “nomadic house-dwelling,” rapidly transformed the face of Anatolia. The Turkmen groups, who predominantly relied on animal husbandry for their livelihood, brought with them numerous religious and cultural values from both the Islamic and pre-Islamic eras. The majority of migrating Turkmen groups began to adopt a settled lifestyle upon their arrival in Anatolia. However, certain groups persisted in their nomadic ways, leading to various political and social events within the state and society. The transition of Turkmen groups to a settled life was not only adopted as a state policy, especially by the Seljuks, but it was also a conscious choice within the community.
With the Turkmen migrations to Anatolia, rapid Turkification and Islamization activities began. New cities were constructed, old ruined cities were revitalized, and the Turkmen groups, including Dervishes, Abdals, and Ahis, embarked on a spiritual conquest of Anatolia, spreading Turkish language, religion, and culture. During this period, many new cities were established, and a variety of elements of settled civilization, such as caravanserais, bridges, roads, mosques, khans, hammams, zaviyas (Sufi lodges), and madrasas, were built. These establishments were made accessible to all Anatolian people, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Dervishes and Abdals initiated religious propagation activities in Anatolia, while Ahis established a counterpart to the settled Greek Orthodox craftsmen, forming Turkish artisan groups and creating industrial areas. All these activities continued not only as a result of state policy but also voluntarily.
The Turkmen groups’ endeavors continued over the years and contributed significantly to solidifying the presence of “Muslim Turks” in Anatolia, laying the foundation for successful and resilient states. The attempts by Turkmen elements contributed to positive interactions with the native populations of Anatolia, mainly the Greeks and Armenians, fostering friendship and mutual understanding. Faced with Byzantine’s oppressive policies and unfair taxation, the local Greek and Armenian populations gradually found refuge among the Turkmen groups, seeking protection under the rule of the Turks and gradually embracing Turkish religion and culture.
As a result of all these activities in Anatolia, the Turkmen groups’ endeavors, along with religious leaders’ efforts, such as Dervishes, Abdals, and Gazi, contributed to the shaping of a shared cultural memory and an intertwined belief and cultural heritage. Consequently, a complex belief and cultural accumulation known as “heteredoxs/heteredoxy” emerged, reflecting the intermingling of Muslim and non-Muslim elements. During this period, both Muslims and non-Muslims influenced each other in religious and cultural matters, fostering a significant cultural exchange.
The Turkification and Islamization efforts in Anatolia led to the creation of numerous literary works during this period, including Menakibnames (hagiographies), Fütüvvetnames (moralistic epics), and epics, which captured the philosophies of Abdals, Dervishes, and Ahis and conveyed their teachings.
Despite the challenges posed by Mongol domination and the decline of the Seljuks, the processes of Islamization and Turkification in Anatolia continued rapidly. With the onset of Turkmen migrations to Western Anatolia, the Dervishes, Abdals, and Ahis, previously active in Eastern and Central Anatolia, expanded their influence towards Western Anatolia. This led to a thriving colonization effort by these groups in Western Anatolia. Numerous elements of civilization were transmitted and established in Western Anatolia through this process.
The activities of the Western Anatolian Beyliks, particularly the Ottoman Empire’s conquests, resulted in the colonization efforts of the so-called Dervishes, Abdals, and Ahis in newly acquired regions, promoting Turkification and Islamization. The most notable areas where these activities took place were the Balkans, opened to the Turks through the Ottoman conquests. Many Turkmen were relocated from Anatolia to the Balkans, and Dervishes, Abdals, and Ahis extended their colonization efforts to this region. The Ottoman Empire’s policy of “istimâlet” (tolerance) facilitated the rapid Turkification and Islamization of the Balkans.
Numerous establishments, including caravanserais, bridges, roads, hammams, khans, zaviyas, medresas, and mosques, were built by the Turkmen groups and religious leaders in the Balkans. Faced with Byzantine’s negative state policies and unjust taxation demands, the Balkan populations found themselves in dire circumstances. Encountering the Ottoman Turks’ tolerant policies and fair administration, they gradually sought refuge under the Ottoman rule, adopting Turkish religion and culture.
In conclusion, the colonization efforts discussed above, driven by the establishment of the Turkish and Islamic civilization in Anatolia, played a pivotal role in ensuring the Turks’ sustained presence in this region, enabling the construction of successful and robust states. Even today, the foundation established through historical processes remains the sole reason for our continued presence and resilience in this territory, despite various military activities. The joint efforts and service-oriented spirit of Dervishes, Abdals, Gazis, Ahis, and other similar figures from various religious and cultural backgrounds represent an unparalleled spirit in world history.
In today’s global system, in order to stand firm both within our own territories and boundaries and across the world, it is imperative to possess this spirit. As a society, we must embrace this spirit wholeheartedly and build policies that revive it, both within the framework of state policies and through the initiatives of civil society organizations. We should strive to raise generations who will not only preserve the past civilization but also contribute to its construction, fostering a new generation of Abdals, Dervishes, and Ahis, and passing on this spirit to our youth.
To embody Turkish-Islamic Civilization means having a civilization with a foundation based on construction, endowment, tolerance, and conscience.
